{"id":25094,"date":"2018-02-11T11:35:43","date_gmt":"2018-02-11T10:35:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/?page_id=25094"},"modified":"2026-11-03T16:39:18","modified_gmt":"2026-11-03T15:39:18","slug":"pteropoda","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/","title":{"rendered":"Pteropoda"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Pteropoda, commonly known as sea butterflies and sea angels, are a group of marine gastropod molluscs adapted to life in the water column. Unlike most gastropods, which crawl along the seabed using a muscular foot, pteropods have evolved wing-like extensions of the foot, called parapodia, which they use to swim. Their name comes from the Greek words <em>pteron<\/em> (wing) and <em>pous<\/em> (foot), referring to these distinctive structures. They belong to the heterobranch gastropods and include some of the most specialised molluscs inhabiting the open ocean.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/15442854?color=ffffff&amp;title=0&amp;byline=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"800\" height=\"500\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/15442854\">Pteropods &#8211; Swimming Mollusks<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/parafilms\">Parafilms<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\">Vimeo<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Pteropods are found in marine environments around the world, from polar waters to tropical seas. Many species live in the open ocean, where they form an important component of planktonic communities. Some inhabit surface waters, while others migrate vertically through the water column, often moving towards the surface at night to feed and returning to deeper waters during the day. Their small size and often delicate, translucent bodies make them difficult to observe in their natural environment, although they can sometimes be seen in plankton samples or encountered by divers.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, pteropods have been divided into two main groups: the Thecosomata, commonly known as sea butterflies, and the Gymnosomata, known as sea angels. Thecosomes generally possess a thin external shell, which may be coiled, conical or globular, and use their wing-like parapodia to swim through the water. Gymnosomes, by contrast, lack an external shell as adults and have more elongated, often transparent bodies. Their parapodia are adapted for active swimming, and many species are specialised predators of other pteropods, particularly shelled sea butterflies. These differences reflect the diversity of body forms and feeding strategies within the group.<\/p>\n<p>Pteropods exhibit a range of feeding habits. Many thecosomes are suspension feeders, capturing tiny food particles, including phytoplankton, with mucus nets that they produce and deploy in the water. Gymnosomes are predominantly carnivorous and prey on other planktonic organisms, especially thecosomes. Through these feeding relationships, pteropods participate in marine food webs, transferring energy between planktonic organisms and larger predators, such as fish and other marine animals.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most remarkable aspects of pteropod biology is their relationship with ocean chemistry. Many thecosomes build shells from aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate that is particularly susceptible to dissolution as seawater becomes more acidic. Ocean acidification, driven largely by the absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide, can make shell formation more difficult and increase the risk of shell dissolution. Because pteropods are abundant in some marine ecosystems and are an important food source for other animals, changes in their populations may have consequences for wider ocean food webs.<\/p>\n<p>Pteropods have traditionally been studied as a distinct group of gastropods, but molecular research has contributed to a better understanding of their evolutionary relationships within Heterobranchia. Their specialised swimming structures, diverse feeding strategies and adaptations to pelagic life illustrate how gastropods have evolved to occupy habitats far removed from the seafloor. Although small and often inconspicuous, pteropods are important components of marine biodiversity and valuable indicators of environmental change in the world&#8217;s oceans.<\/p>\n<p>Actual classification of Pteropods, according to WoRMS is:<\/p>\n    <style>\n        .opk-taxonomy-loader {\n            display: flex;\n            gap: 4px;\n            align-items: center;\n            justify-content: center;\n            height: 24px;\n            margin-bottom: 1em;\n        }\n        .opk-taxonomy-loader span {\n            display: block;\n            width: 4px;\n            height: 16px;\n            background: currentColor;\n            animation: opkTaxonomyBarPulse 1.2s infinite ease-in-out;\n        }\n        .opk-taxonomy-loader span:nth-child(1) { animation-delay: 0s; }\n        .opk-taxonomy-loader span:nth-child(2) { animation-delay: 0.2s; }\n        .opk-taxonomy-loader span:nth-child(3) { animation-delay: 0.4s; }\n\n        @keyframes opkTaxonomyBarPulse {\n            0%, 100% { transform: scaleY(0.5); opacity: 0.5; }\n            50% { transform: scaleY(1); opacity: 1; }\n        }\n\n        .opk-taxonomy-tree ul {\n            margin-top: 0.15em;\n            margin-bottom: 0.15em;\n            margin-left: 1em;\n            padding-left: 1em;\n            list-style-type: disc;\n        }\n        .opk-taxonomy-tree li {\n            margin: 0.1em 0;\n        }\n    <\/style>\n    <div id=\"opk-taxonomy-tree-3\" class=\"opk-taxonomy-tree\" aria-live=\"polite\">\n        <div class=\"opk-taxonomy-loader\" role=\"status\" aria-label=\"Loading\">\n            <span><\/span><span><\/span><span><\/span>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n    <script>\n    (function () {\n        var container = document.getElementById(\"opk-taxonomy-tree-3\");\n        if (!container) return;\n\n        fetch(\"https:\\\/\\\/opistobranquis.info\\\/wp-admin\\\/admin-ajax.php?action=opk_load_taxonomy_tree&slug&taxon&max_rank=Family&lang=en\", { credentials: 'same-origin' })\n            .then(function (response) {\n                if (!response.ok) throw new Error('HTTP ' + response.status);\n                return response.text();\n            })\n            .then(function (html) {\n                container.innerHTML = html;\n            })\n            .catch(function () {\n                container.textContent = '\u26a0\ufe0f';\n            });\n    })();\n    <\/script>\n    \n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>These are the different subgroups of Pteropoda:<\/p>\n<p>\n    <div\n        class=\"autonav-grid autonav-columns-3\"\n    >\n\n        \n            \n            <article class=\"autonav-card\">\n\n                <a href=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/euthecosomata\/\">\n\n                    \n                        <div class=\"autonav-image\">\n\n                            <img decoding=\"async\" width=\"500\" height=\"324\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?fit=500%2C324&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"autonav-thumb\" alt=\"Styliola subula 7 mm (Pacific population) by Pauline Fiene seaslugsofhawaii.com\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?w=500&amp;ssl=1 500w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?resize=150%2C97&amp;ssl=1 150w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?resize=300%2C194&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\" data-attachment-id=\"14796\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/euthecosomata\/styliola-subula\/styliola-subula-7-mm-pacific-population-by-pauline-fiene-seaslugsofhawaii-com\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?fit=500%2C324&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"500,324\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Styliola subula 7 mm (Pacific population)  by Pauline Fiene seaslugsofhawaii.com\" data-image-description=\"&lt;p&gt;Styliola subula 7 mm (Pacific population)  by Pauline Fiene seaslugsofhawaii.com&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-image-caption=\"&lt;p&gt;Styliola subula 7 mm (Pacific population)  by Pauline Fiene seaslugsofhawaii.com&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/03\/Styliola-subula-7-mm-Pacific-population-by-Pauline-Fiene-seaslugsofhawaii.com_.jpg?fit=500%2C324&amp;ssl=1\" \/>\n                        <\/div>\n\n                    \n                    <div class=\"autonav-content\">\n\n                        <h3>\n                            Euthecosomata                        <\/h3>\n\n                    <\/div>\n\n                <\/a>\n\n            <\/article>\n\n        \n            \n            <article class=\"autonav-card\">\n\n                <a href=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/pseudothecosomata\/\">\n\n                    \n                        <div class=\"autonav-image\">\n\n                            <img decoding=\"async\" width=\"650\" height=\"394\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/12\/corolla-spectabilis.jpg?fit=650%2C394&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"autonav-thumb\" alt=\"Corolla spectabilis\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/12\/corolla-spectabilis.jpg?w=650&amp;ssl=1 650w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/12\/corolla-spectabilis.jpg?resize=300%2C181&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\" data-attachment-id=\"4241\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/pseudothecosomata\/corolla-spectabilis\/corolla-spectabilis-2-2\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/12\/corolla-spectabilis.jpg?fit=650%2C394&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"650,394\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Corolla spectabilis\" data-image-description=\"&lt;p&gt;Corolla spectabilis&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-image-caption=\"&lt;p&gt;Corolla spectabilis&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/12\/corolla-spectabilis.jpg?fit=650%2C394&amp;ssl=1\" \/>\n                        <\/div>\n\n                    \n                    <div class=\"autonav-content\">\n\n                        <h3>\n                            Pseudothecosomata                        <\/h3>\n\n                    <\/div>\n\n                <\/a>\n\n            <\/article>\n\n        \n            \n            <article class=\"autonav-card\">\n\n                <a href=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/gymnosomata\/\">\n\n                    \n                        <div class=\"autonav-image\">\n\n                            <img decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"533\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?fit=800%2C533&amp;ssl=1\" class=\"autonav-thumb\" alt=\"Clione limacina by Manuel Ballesteros\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?w=800&amp;ssl=1 800w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?resize=150%2C99&amp;ssl=1 150w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?resize=300%2C199&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" data-attachment-id=\"8578\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/gymnosomata\/clione-limacina\/clione-limacina-2-3\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?fit=800%2C533&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"800,533\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Clione limacina by Manuel Ballesteros\" data-image-description=\"&lt;p&gt;Clione limacina by Manuel Ballesteros&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-image-caption=\"&lt;p&gt;Clione limacina by Manuel Ballesteros&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/opistobranquis.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/09\/Clione-limacina-2.jpg?fit=800%2C533&amp;ssl=1\" \/>\n                        <\/div>\n\n                    \n                    <div class=\"autonav-content\">\n\n                        <h3>\n                            Gymnosomata                        <\/h3>\n\n                    <\/div>\n\n                <\/a>\n\n            <\/article>\n\n        \n    <\/div>\n\n    <\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Pteropoda, commonly known as sea butterflies and sea angels, are a group of marine gastropod molluscs adapted to life in the water column. Unlike most gastropods, which crawl along the seabed using a muscular foot, pteropods have evolved wing-like extensions of the foot, called parapodia, which they use to swim. Their name comes from the Greek words pteron (wing) and pous (foot), referring to these distinctive structures. They belong to\u2026<\/p>\n<p class=\"continue-reading-button\"> <a class=\"continue-reading-link\" href=\"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/guia\/pteropoda\/\">Continue reading<i class=\"crycon-right-dir\"><\/i><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":17103,"parent":185,"menu_order":1029,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-25094","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25094","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=25094"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25094\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":49027,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25094\/revisions\/49027"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/185"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/17103"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opistobranquis.info\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=25094"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}