Home Guide to Opisthobranchs Nudibranchia Cladobranchia

Cladobranchia

Cladobranchia is one of the two major evolutionary lineages of Nudibranchia, together with Doridina. It comprises an extraordinarily diverse group of sea slugs, characterized by a wide variety of body forms and specialized dorsal and lateral structures.

Candiella striata by Pontes, Miquel

Cladobranchia exhibits remarkable morphological diversity. Many species possess specialized dorsal appendages associated with respiration, defence, feeding, or sensory functions. Aeolids are typically characterized by numerous cerata distributed across the dorsal surface. These structures contain extensions of the digestive gland and, in many species, incorporate cnidosacs, specialized structures associated with defence. Other cladobranchs possess branched or dendritic dorsal processes, enlarged oral structures, rhinophoral sheaths, or other specialized appendages.

The name Cladobranchia was introduced by Willan and Morton (1984) for a group of nudibranchs that included the principal lineages traditionally recognized as aeolids, arminaceans, and dendronotaceans. Subsequently, the concept of the group was revised through comparative anatomical and phylogenetic studies. The incorporation of molecular data allowed relationships among various lineages to be reassessed and showed that some traditional groupings based on morphology did not necessarily correspond to natural evolutionary groups.

Molecular phylogenetics has led to numerous changes in the higher classification of Cladobranchia. Several families and superfamilies have been established, redefined, or reorganized as new data have become available. Relationships among some of the major lineages of the group remain under study, and the classification has continued to evolve as new evidence has accumulated.

The classification proposed by Korshunova et al. (2025) introduced a major reorganization of the higher classification of nudibranchs and adopted a restricted concept of Nudibranchia. Subsequently, Moles et al. (2026) reconsidered this proposal in the context of their analysis of the taxonomic stability of marine heterobranchs. In the treatment adopted here, the broader concept of Nudibranchia is retained, with Cladobranchia considered one of its two major evolutionary lineages.

Cladobranchia comprises a wide diversity of groups, including numerous aeolid lineages and other forms traditionally grouped among the arminaceans and dendronotaceans. The higher classification has undergone various modifications and, consequently, the delimitation and assignment of some groups may vary depending on the taxonomic source consulted.

Aeolids are particularly well known for their cerata, which can perform respiratory, digestive, and defensive functions. Some species are capable of retaining functional nematocysts obtained from their cnidarian prey and incorporating them into cnidosacs located at the tips of the cerata. Other cladobranchs possess different defensive mechanisms, including chemical defences, cryptic colouration, and specialized body structures.

Cladobranchia occupies a wide range of marine environments, from shallow coastal waters and intertidal zones to deeper environments of the continental shelf and slope. Many species maintain specialized trophic relationships with particular organisms, including hydrozoans, octocorals and other cnidarians, sponges, and bryozoans. These dietary specializations may be associated with morphological, behavioural, and chemical adaptations.

The diversity of Cladobranchia is reflected both in its morphology and in its ecological strategies. The great variety of body structures, feeding strategies, and defensive mechanisms found within the group reflects a complex evolutionary history. Anatomical, developmental, molecular, and ecological studies continue to provide information for a better understanding of the relationships among its different lineages and their diversification.

The classification presented below reflects the current taxonomic framework used by the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS), taking into account the broader concept of Nudibranchia supported by Moles et al. (2026):

Cladobranchia

  • Aeolidioidea J. E. Gray, 1827
    • Aeolidiidae J. E. Gray, 1827
      • Aeolidia Cuvier, 1798
      • Aeolidiella Bergh, 1867
      • Aeolidiopsis Pruvot-Fol, 1956
      • Anteaeolidiella M. C. Miller, 2001
      • Baeolidia Bergh, 1888
      • Berghia Trinchese, 1877
      • Bulbaeolidia Carmona, Pola, Gosliner & Cervera, 2013
      • Cerberilla Bergh, 1873
      • Limenandra Haefelfinger & Stamm, 1958
      • Spurilla Bergh, 1864
      • Zeusia Korshunova, Zimina & Martynov, 2017
    • Babakinidae Roller, 1973
      • Babakina Roller, 1973
    • Facelinidae Bergh, 1889
      • Adfacelina Millen & Hermosillo, 2012
      • Algarvia García-Gómez & Cervera, 1990
      • Amanda Macnae, 1954
      • Anetarca Gosliner, 1991
      • Antonietta Schmekel, 1966
      • Austraeolis Burn, 1962
      • Bajaeolis Gosliner & Behrens, 1986
      • Burnaia M. C. Miller, 2001
      • Caloria Trinchese, 1888
      • Cratena Bergh, 1864
      • Crateninae Bergh, 1889
      • Dicata Schmekel, 1967
      • Echinopsole Macnae, 1954
      • Emarcusia Roller, 1972
      • Facelina Alder & Hancock, 1855
      • Facelininae Bergh, 1889
      • Facelinopsis Pruvot-Fol, 1954
      • Favorininae Bergh, 1889
      • Favorinus J. E. Gray, 1850
      • Hermosita Gosliner & Behrens, 1986
      • Herviella Baba, 1949
      • Herviellinae Burn, 1967
      • Janssonius Ortea & Moro, 2022
      • Jason M. C. Miller, 1974
      • Learchis Bergh, 1896
      • Moridilla Bergh, 1888
      • Myja Bergh, 1896
      • Noumeaella Risbec, 1937
      • Palisa Edmunds, 1964
      • Pauleo Millen & Hamann, 1992
      • Phidiana Gray, 1850
      • Pruvotfolia J. Tardy, 1970
      • Pteraeolidiinae Risbec, 1953
        • Pteraeolidia Bergh, 1875
      • Sakuraeolis Baba, 1965
      • Setoeolis Baba, 1965
    • Flabellinidae Bergh, 1889
      • Calmella Eliot, 1906
      • Carronella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Coryphellina O’Donoghue, 1929
      • Edmundsella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Flabellina McMurtrie, 1831
      • Paraflabellina Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
    • Flabellinopsidae Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Baenopsis Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Flabellinopsis MacFarland, 1966
    • Glaucidae Gray, 1827
      • Glaucilla Bergh, 1861
      • Glaucus Forster, 1777
    • Hantazuidae Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
      • Hantazuia Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
    • Myrrhinidae Bergh, 1905
      • Dondice Er. Marcus, 1958
      • Godiva Macnae, 1954
      • Hermissenda Bergh, 1879
      • Nanuca Er. Marcus, 1957
      • Nemesignis Furfaro & Mariottini, 2021
      • Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831
    • Piseinotecidae Edmunds, 1970
      • Piseinotecus Er. Marcus, 1955
    • Pleurolidiidae Burn, 1966
      • Pleurolidia Burn, 1966
      • Protaeolidiella Baba, 1955
  • Apataoidea Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
    • Apataidae Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Apata Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Tularia Burn, 1966
  • Chudoidea Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
    • Chudidae Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
      • Chudo Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
  • Embletonioidea Pruvot-Fol, 1954
    • Embletoniidae Pruvot-Fol, 1954
      • Embletonia Alder & Hancock, 1851
  • Fionoidea J. E. Gray, 1857
    • Abronicidae Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Abronica Cella, Carmona, Ekimova, Chichvarkhin, Schepetov & Gosliner, 2016
    • Calmidae Iredale & O’Donoghue, 1923
      • Calma Alder & Hancock, 1855
    • Coryphellidae Bergh, 1889
      • Borealea Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Corrupta Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
      • Coryphella J. E. Gray, 1850
      • Fjordia Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Gulenia Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Himatina Thiele, 1931
      • Itaxia Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Microchlamylla Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Occidenthella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Orienthella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Portorchardia Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
    • Cumanotidae Odhner, 1907
      • Cumanotus Odhner, 1907
    • Cuthonellidae M. C. Miller, 1977
      • Cratenopsis Lemche, 1935
      • Cuthonella Bergh, 1884
      • Fiocuthona Martynov, 1992
    • Cuthonidae Odhner, 1934
      • Bohuslania Korshunova, Lundin, Malmberg, Picton & Martynov, 2018
      • Cuthona Alder & Hancock, 1855
    • Eubranchidae Odhner, 1934
      • Aenigmastyletus Martynov, 1998
      • Amphorina Quatrefages, 1844
      • Annulorhina K. P. Rao, 1968
      • Capellinia Trinchese, 1873
      • Corruptobranchus Martynov & Korshunova, 2025
      • Dunga Eliot, 1902
      • Eubranchopsis Baba, 1949
      • Eubranchulus Martynov & Korshunova, 2025
      • Eubranchus Forbes, 1838
      • Galvinella Eliot, 1907
      • Karavellia Martynov & Korshunova, 2025
      • Leostyletus Martynov, 1998
      • Nudibranchus Martynov, 1998
      • Produnga Martynov, 1998
    • Fionidae J. E. Gray, 1857
      • Fiona Alder & Hancock, 1853
      • Tergiposacca Cella, Carmona, Ekimova, Chichvarkhin, Schepetov & Gosliner, 2016
      • Zatteria Eliot, 1902
    • Magallanidae Ortea & Moro, 2020
      • Magallanes Ortea & Moro, 2020
    • Murmaniidae Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Guyvalvoria Vayssière, 1906
      • Murmania Martynov, 2006
    • Paracoryphellidae M. C. Miller, 1971
      • Chlamylla Bergh, 1886
      • Paracoryphella M. C. Miller, 1971
      • Polaria Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Ziminella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
    • Pinufiidae Er. Marcus & Ev. Marcus, 1960
      • Pinufius Er. Marcus & Ev. Marcus, 1960
    • Pseudovermidae Thiele, 1931
      • Pseudovermis Perejaslavtzeva, 1891
    • Tergipedidae Bergh, 1889
      • Tergipes Cuvier, 1805
    • Trinchesiidae F. Nordsieck, 1972
      • Catriona Winckworth, 1941
      • Diaphoreolis Iredale & O’Donoghue, 1923
      • Phestilla Bergh, 1874
      • Rubramoena Cella, Carmona, Ekimova, Chichvarkhin, Schepetov & Gosliner, 2016
      • Selva Edmunds, 1964
      • Tenellia A. Costa, 1866
      • Trinchesia Ihering, 1879
    • Xenocratenidae Martynov, Lundin, Picton, Fletcher, Malmberg & Korshunova, 2020
      • Xenocratena Odhner, 1940
  • Notaeolidioidea Eliot, 1910
    • Notaeolidiidae Eliot, 1910
      • Notaeolidia Eliot, 1905
  • Samloidea Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
    • Samlidae Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Luisella Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Samla Bergh, 1900
  • Unidentioidea Millen & Hermosillo, 2012
    • Unidentiidae Millen & Hermosillo, 2012
      • Pacifia Korshunova, Martynov, Bakken, Evertsen, Fletcher, Mudianta, H. Saito, Lundin, Schrödl & Picton, 2017
      • Phetia Korshunova, Fletcher & Martynov, 2025
      • Unidentia Millen & Hermosillo, 2012
  • Arminoidea Iredale & O’Donoghue, 1923 (1841)
    • Arminidae Iredale & O’Donoghue, 1923 (1841)
      • Armina Rafinesque, 1814
      • Atthila Bergh, 1899
      • Dermatobranchus van Hasselt, 1824
      • Histiomena Mörch, 1859
      • Pleurophyllidiella Eliot, 1903
      • Pleurophyllidiopsis S. Tchang, 1934
  • Dendronotoidea Allman, 1845
    • Bornellidae Bergh, 1874
      • Bornella Gray, 1850
    • Dendronotidae Allman, 1845
      • Cabangus Korshunova, Bakken, Grøtan, K. B. Johnson, Lundin & Martynov, 2020
      • Dendronotus Alder & Hancock, 1845
      • Pseudobornella Baba, 1932
    • Dotidae Gray, 1853
      • Caecinella Bergh, 1870
      • Doto Oken, 1815
      • Kabeiro Shipman & Gosliner, 2015
      • Miesea Er. Marcus, 1961
    • Hancockiidae MacFarland, 1923
      • Hancockia Gosse, 1877
    • Lomanotidae Bergh, 1890
      • Lomanotus Vérany, 1844
    • Phylliroidae Menke, 1830
      • Cephalopyge Hanel, 1905
      • Phylliroe F. Péron & Lesueur, 1810
    • Scyllaeidae Alder & Hancock, 1855
      • Crosslandia Eliot, 1902
      • Notobryon Odhner, 1936
      • Scyllaea Linnaeus, 1758
    • Tethydidae Rafinesque, 1815
      • Melibe Rang, 1829
      • Tethys Linnaeus, 1767
  • Proctonotoidea J. E. Gray, 1853
    • Curnonidae d’Udekem d’Acoz, 2017
      • Curnon d’Udekem d’Acoz, 2017
      • Pseudotritonia Thiele, 1912
    • Dironidae Eliot, 1910
      • Dirona MacFarland, 1905
    • Goniaeolididae Odhner, 1907
      • Goniaeolis M. Sars, 1861
    • Janolidae Pruvot-Fol, 1933
      • Antiopella Hoyle, 1902
      • Bonisa Gosliner, 1981
      • Galeojanolus M. C. Miller, 1971
      • Janolus Bergh, 1884
    • Lemindidae R. J. Griffiths, 1985
      • Leminda R. J. Griffiths, 1985
    • Madrellidae Preston, 1911
      • Eliotia Vayssière, 1909
      • Madrella Alder & Hancock, 1864
    • Proctonotidae J. E. Gray, 1853
      • Caldukia Burn & M. C. Miller, 1969
      • Proctonotus Alder & Hancock, 1844
  • Tritonioidea Lamarck, 1809
    • Tritoniidae Lamarck, 1809
      • Marioniinae F. V. Silva, Pola & Cervera, 2023
        • Marionia Vayssière, 1877
        • Marioniopsis Odhner, 1934
        • Paratritonia Baba, 1949
      • Tritoniinae Lamarck, 1809
        • Candiella J. E. Gray, 1850
        • Marianina Pruvot-Fol, 1931
        • Myrella Odhner, 1963
        • Tochuina Odhner, 1963
        • Tritonia Cuvier, 1797
        • Tritonicula Korshunova & Martynov, 2020
        • Tritonidoxa Bergh, 1907
        • Tritoniella Eliot, 1907
        • Tritoniopsis Eliot, 1905

Main groups of Cladobranchia:

Bibliography

    1246567 Cladobranchia 1 eunomia-revista-en-cultura-de-la-legalidad 50 creator asc 1 48603 https://opistobranquis.info/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
    %7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%226KQRBXMG%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Bouchet%20and%20Rocroi%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222005%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BBouchet%2C%20P.%2C%20Rocroi%2C%20J.%20P.%20%282005%29.%20Classification%20and%20nomenclator%20of%20gastropod%20families.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BMalacologia%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B47%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281-2%29%2C%201-397.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Classification%20and%20nomenclator%20of%20gastropod%20families%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Bouchet%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22J.%20P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Rocroi%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222005%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%22%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2222WZ5MYR%22%2C%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-05-14T13%3A36%3A42Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%22WR37PFVC%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Bouchet%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222017%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BBouchet%2C%20P.%2C%20Rocroi%2C%20J.%20P.%2C%20Hausdorf%2C%20B.%2C%20Kaim%2C%20A.%2C%20Kano%2C%20Y.%2C%20N%26%23xFC%3Btzel%2C%20A.%2C%20Parkhaev%2C%20P.%20et%26%23xA0%3Bal.%20%282017%29.%20Revised%20classification%2C%20nomenclator%20and%20typification%20of%20gastropod%20and%20monoplacophoran%20families.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BMalacologia%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B61%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281-2%29%2C%201-526.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Revised%20classification%2C%20nomenclator%20and%20typification%20of%20gastropod%20and%20monoplacophoran%20families%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Bouchet%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22J.%20P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Rocroi%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22B.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Hausdorf%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Kaim%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Y.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Kano%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22N%5Cu00fctzel%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Parkhaev%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Schr%5Cu00f6dl%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22E.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Strong%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%222%2C604%20names%20at%20the%20rank%20of%20subtribe%2C%20tribe%2C%20subfamily%2C%20family%20and%20superfamily%20have%20been%20proposed%20for%20Recent%20and%20fossil%20gastropods%2C%20and%20another%2035%20for%20monoplacophorans.%20All%20names%20are%20listed%20in%20a%20nomenclator%20giving%20full%20bibliographical%20reference%2C%20date%20of%20publication%2C%20typification%2C%20and%20their%20nomenclatural%20availability%20and%20validity%20under%20the%20International%20Code%20of%20Zoological%20Nomenclature.%20Another%20790%20names%2C%20established%20for%20categories%20above%20the%20familygroup%20%28infraorder%20to%20subclass%29%20are%20listed%20separately.%20A%20fully%20ranked%2C%20hierarchical%20classification%20summarizes%20recent%20advances%20in%20the%20phylogeny%20of%20the%20Gastropoda%20and%20Monoplacophora.%20In%20all%2C%20the%20classification%20recognizes%20as%20valid%20a%20total%20of%20721%20gastropod%20families%2C%20of%20which%20245%20are%20known%20exclusively%20as%20fossils%20and%20476%20occur%20in%20the%20Recent%20with%20or%20without%20a%20fossil%20record%3B%20and%2020%20monoplacophoran%20families%2C%20of%20which%201%20only%20occurs%20as%20Recent.%20Nomenclatural%20acts%20in%20this%20work%3A%20Amberleya%20bathonica%20Cox%20%26amp%3B%20Arkell%2C%201950%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Amberleya%20J.%20Morris%20%26amp%3B%20Lycett%2C%201851%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Ampezzopleura%20tenuis%20N%5Cu00fctzel%2C%201998%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Ampezzopleura%20Bandel%2C%201991%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Proserpina%20nitida%20G.%20B.%20Sowerby%20II%2C%201839%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Despoena%20Newton%2C%201891%3B%20Buccinum%20glabratum%20Linnaeus%2C%201758%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Dipsaccus%20H.%20Adams%20%26amp%3B%20A.%20Adams%2C%201853%3B%20Murex%20ficus%20Linnaeus%2C%201758%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Ficula%20Swainson%2C%201835%3B%20Oncomelania%20hupensis%20Gredler%2C%201881%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Hemibia%20Heude%2C%201890%3B%20Murex%20metaxa%20Delle%20Chiaje%2C%201828%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Metaxia%20Monterosato%2C%201884%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Neridomus%20anglicus%20Cox%20%26amp%3B%20Arkell%2C%201950%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Neridomus%20J.%20Morris%20%26amp%3B%20Lycett%2C%201851%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Navicella%20clypeolum%20R%5Cu00e9cluz%2C%201843%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Orthopoma%20Gray%2C%201868%3B%20Trochus%20viadrinus%20M.%20Schmidt%2C%201905%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Parataphrus%20Chavan%2C%201954%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Helix%20pomatia%20Linnaeus%2C%201758%2C%20designated%20type%20species%20of%20Pentataenia%20A.%20Schmidt%2C%201855%3B%20Flammulina%20ponsonbyi%20Suter%2C%201897%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Phenacohelix%20Suter%2C%201892%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Cyrtolites%20corniculum%20Eichwald%2C%201860%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Pollicina%20Koken%2C%201895%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Purpurina%20elegantula%20d%5Cu2019Orbigny%2C%201850%2C%20designated%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Purpurina%20d%5Cu2019Orbigny%2C%201850%2C%20and%20lectotype%20of%20Turbo%20bellona%20d%5Cu2019Orbigny%2C%201850%2C%20designated%20as%20neotype%20of%20Purpurina%20elegantula%3B%20Pyramidella%20minuscula%20Monterosato%2C%201880%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Tiberia%20Jeffreys%2C%201884%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Cyclostoma%20delicatum%20Philippi%2C%201844%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Trachysma%20G.%20O.%20Sars%2C%201878%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Helix%20elegans%20Gmelin%2C%201791%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Trochoidea%20T.%20Brown%2C%201827%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Turritellopsis%20stimpsoni%20Dall%2C%201919%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Turritellopsis%20G.%20O.%20Sars%2C%201878%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Fusus%20averillii%20Gabb%2C%201864%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Volutoderma%20Gabb%2C%201876%2C%20under%20Art.%2070.3%3B%20Voluta%20pepo%20Lightfoot%2C%201786%2C%20fixed%20as%20type%20species%20of%20Yetus%20Bowdich%2C%201822.%20Curnonidae%20d%5Cu2019Udekem%20d%5Cu2019Acoz%2C%20nom.%20nov.%2C%20and%20Curnon%20d%5Cu2019Udekem%20d%5Cu2019Acoz%2C%20nom.%20nov.%2C%20are%20established%20for%20Charcotiidae%20Odhner%2C%201926%2C%20and%20Charcotia%20Vayssi%5Cu00e8re%2C%201906%2C%20%28between%2027%20March%20and%201%20May%29%2C%20non%20Charcotia%20Chevreux%2C%201906%20%28January%29%20%5BAmphipoda%5D%3B%20Yuopisthonematidae%20N%5Cu00fctzel%2C%20nom.%20nov.%2C%20and%20Yuopisthonema%20N%5Cu00fctzel%2C%20nom.%20nov.%2C%20are%20established%20for%20Opisthonematidae%20Yu%2C%201976%2C%20and%20Opisthonema%20Yu%2C%201974%2C%20non%20Gill%2C%201862%20%5BPisces%5D.%20The%20new%20family-group%20name%20Burnupiidae%20Albrecht%20is%20established%20in%20this%20work%3B%20and%20the%20names%20Scolodontina%20and%20Orthalicoidei%20are%20first%20used%20here%20to%20denote%2C%20respectively%2C%20a%20suborder%20containing%20the%20family%20Scolodontidae%2C%20and%20an%20infraorder%20containing%20the%20superfamily%20Orthalicoidea.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222017%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%22%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2222WZ5MYR%22%2C%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-07-11T14%3A16%3A03Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%22LHUV94IK%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Goodheart%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222015%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BGoodheart%2C%20J.%2C%20Bazinet%2C%20A.%20L.%2C%20Collins%2C%20A.%20G.%2C%20Cummings%2C%20M.%20P.%20%282015%29.%20Relationships%20within%20Cladobranchia%20%28Gastropoda%3A%20Nudibranchia%29%20based%20on%20RNA-Seq%20data%3A%20an%20initial%20investigation.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BR.%20Soc.%20open%20sci.2%3A%20150196%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1098%5C%2Frsos.150196%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1098%5C%2Frsos.150196%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Relationships%20within%20Cladobranchia%20%28Gastropoda%3A%20Nudibranchia%29%20based%20on%20RNA-Seq%20data%3A%20an%20initial%20investigation%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22J.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Goodheart%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.L.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Bazinet%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.G.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Collins%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M.P.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Cummings%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Cladobranchia%20%28Gastropoda%3A%20Nudibranchia%29%20is%20a%20diverse%20%28approx.%201000%20species%29%20but%20understudied%20group%20of%20sea%20slug%20molluscs.%20In%20order%20to%20fully%20comprehend%20the%20diversity%20of%20nudibranchs%20and%20the%20evolution%20of%20character%20traits%20within%20Cladobranchia%2C%20a%20solid%20understanding%20of%20evolutionary%20relationships%20is%20necessary.%20To%20date%2C%20only%20two%20direct%20attempts%20have%20been%20made%20to%20understand%20the%20evolutionary%20relationships%20within%20Cladobranchia%2C%20neither%20of%20which%20resulted%20in%20wellsupported%20phylogenetic%20hypotheses.%20In%20addition%20to%20these%20studies%2C%20several%20others%20have%20addressed%20some%20of%20the%20relationships%20within%20this%20clade%20while%20investigating%20the%20evolutionary%20history%20of%20more%20inclusive%20groups%20%28Nudibranchia%20and%20Euthyneura%29.%20However%2C%20all%20of%20the%20resulting%20phylogenetic%20hypotheses%20contain%20conflicting%20topologies%20within%20Cladobranchia.%20In%20this%20study%2C%20we%20address%20some%20of%20these%20long-standing%20issues%20regarding%20the%20evolutionary%20history%20of%20Cladobranchia%20using%20RNA-Seq%20data%20%28transcriptomes%29.%20We%20sequenced%2016%20transcriptomes%20and%20combined%20these%20with%20four%20transcriptomes%20from%20the%20NCBI%20Sequence%20Read%20Archive.%20Transcript%20assembly%20using%20Trinity%20and%20orthology%20determination%20using%20HAMSTR%20yielded%20839%20orthologous%20groups%20for%20analysis.%20These%20data%20provide%20a%20wellsupported%20and%20almost%20fully%20resolved%20phylogenetic%20hypothesis%20for%20Cladobranchia.%20Our%20results%20support%20the%20monophyly%20of%20Cladobranchia%20and%20the%20sub-clade%20Aeolidida%2C%20but%20reject%20the%20monophyly%20of%20Dendronotida.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222015%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1098%5C%2Frsos.150196%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222018-02-18T07%3A46%3A06Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%227NCTC3QV%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Korshunova%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222025%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BKorshunova%2C%20T.%2C%20Fletcher%2C%20K.%2C%20Martynov%2C%20A.%20%282025%29.%20The%20endless%20forms%20are%20the%20most%20differentiated%26%23x2014%3Bhow%20taxonomic%20pseudo-optimization%20masked%20natural%20diversity%20and%20evolution%3A%20the%20nudibranch%20case.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BZoological%20Journal%20of%20the%20Linnean%20Society%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B204%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%284%29%2C%201-93.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-ItemURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlaf057%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlaf057%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22The%20endless%20forms%20are%20the%20most%20differentiated%5Cu2014how%20taxonomic%20pseudo-optimization%20masked%20natural%20diversity%20and%20evolution%3A%20the%20nudibranch%20case%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22T.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Korshunova%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22K.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Fletcher%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Martynov%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22In%20this%20study%2C%20a%20global-encompassing%2C%20fine-scale%20differentiated%20taxonomy%20is%20consistently%20presented%20from%20the%20high%20level%20of%20a%20major%20nudibranch%20suborder%2C%20Aeolidacea%2C%20and%20then%20consequentially%20to%20lower%20levels%20of%20superfamilies%2C%20families%2C%20genera%2C%20and%20species%20to%20conjoin%20the%20underlying%20evolutionary%20pathways%20of%20aeolidacean%20nudibranchs%20and%20systematic%20representation%20to%20a%20maximal%20degree.%20The%20suborder%20Aeolidacea%20is%20reinstated%20and%20the%20superfamily%20system%20of%20Aeolidacea%20is%20reformed%3B%2010%20aeolidacean%20superfamilies%20are%20recognized%20encompassing%2029%20families%20in%20an%20all-family%20Synopsis%2C%20and%20the%20superfamily%20Embletonioidea%20is%20included%20in%20addition.%20Two%20new%20families%2C%20Chudidae%20fam.%20nov.%20and%20Hantazuidae%20fam.%20nov.%2C%20are%20described%2C%20which%20show%20unique%20morphological%20and%20molecular%20patterns.%20Seven%20new%20species%20are%20described%20within%20various%20superfamilies%2C%20and%20five%20species%20are%20reinstated.%20The%20genus-level%20taxonomy%20of%20the%20family%20Coryphellidae%20is%20revisited%2C%2011%20genera%20are%20recognized%2C%20including%20nine%20reinstated%20and%20two%20new%20genera.%20We%20show%20that%20recent%20synonymization%20of%20all%20valid%20Coryphellidae%20genera%20into%20just%20a%20single%20genus%20was%20based%20on%20an%20erroneous%20phylogenetic%20analysis%2C%20the%20careless%20treatment%20of%20morphological%20characters%2C%20and%20established%20preconceptions.%20Uniting%20fine-scale%20morphological%20and%20molecular%20data%2C%20order-level%20nudibranch%20taxonomy%20is%20refined%2C%20order%20Nudibranchia%20is%20restricted%2C%20and%20order%20Doridida%20is%20reinstated.%20Within%20the%20order%20Nudibranchia%2C%20five%20suborders%20are%20recognized%3A%20Arminacea%2C%20restricted%2C%20reinstated%3B%20Tritoniacea%2C%20reinstated%3B%20Dendronotacea%2C%20restricted%2C%20reinstated%3B%20Janolacea%2C%20reinstated%3B%20and%20Aeolidacea%2C%20revised%2C%20reinstated.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222025%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlaf057%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlaf057%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%220024-4082%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-09-03T12%3A43%3A35Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%222X4YM64B%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Mahguib%20and%20Vald%5Cu00e9s%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222015%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BMahguib%2C%20J.%2C%20Vald%26%23xE9%3Bs%2C%20%26%23xC1%3B.%20%282015%29.%20Molecular%20investigation%20of%20the%20phylogenetic%20position%20of%20the%20polar%20nudibranch%20Doridoxa%20%28Mollusca%2C%20Gastropoda%2C%20Heterobranchia%29.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BPolar%20Biol%20%282015%29%2038%3A1369%26%23x2013%3B1377%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1007%5C%2Fs00300-015-1700-5%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1007%5C%2Fs00300-015-1700-5%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Molecular%20investigation%20of%20the%20phylogenetic%20position%20of%20the%20polar%20nudibranch%20Doridoxa%20%28Mollusca%2C%20Gastropoda%2C%20Heterobranchia%29%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22J.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Mahguib%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22%5Cu00c1%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Vald%5Cu00e9s%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22The%20phylogenetic%20position%20of%20the%20polar%20nudibranch%20genus%20Doridoxa%20within%20Nudibranchia%20is%20controversial.%20Because%20Doridoxa%20is%20only%20found%20in%20polar%20deep%20waters%20specimens%20available%20for%20research%20are%20scarce.%20Additionally%2C%20Doridoxa%20possesses%20a%20mixture%20of%20morphological%20traits%20that%20are%20present%20in%20the%20two%20major%20lineages%20of%20nudibranchs%20%28dorids%20and%20cladobranchs%29%2C%20making%20classification%20difficult.%20All%20previous%20classification%20attempts%20were%20based%20on%20the%20careful%20study%20of%20morphological%20characters%20and%20resulted%20in%20conflicting%20classification%20schemes.%20For%20the%20present%20paper%2C%20we%20had%20access%20to%20a%20representative%20specimen%20of%20Doridoxa%20that%20yielded%20clean%20sequences%20of%20two%20mitochondrial%20genes%20%2816S%2C%20CO1%29%20and%20a%20nuclear%20gene%20%28H3%29.%20The%20goal%20of%20this%20study%20was%20to%20determine%20the%20phylogenetic%20position%20of%20Doridoxa%20within%20Nudibranchia%20using%20molecular%20data.%20Our%20results%20revealed%20that%20Doridoxa%20appears%20to%20be%20a%20member%20of%20Cladobranchia%20and%20therefore%20a%20more%20derived%20group%20of%20nudibranchs%20than%20previously%20considered%20by%20most%20authors.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222015%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1007%5C%2Fs00300-015-1700-5%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222018-02-18T07%3A46%3A06Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%229VIPQGDN%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Moles%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-09-01%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BMoles%2C%20J.%2C%20Bonomo%2C%20L.%2C%20Brenzinger%2C%20B.%2C%20Camacho%20Garc%26%23xED%3Ba%2C%20Y.%20E.%2C%20Carmona%2C%20L.%2C%20Currado%2C%20J.%20L.%20C.%2C%20Donohoo%2C%20S.%20et%26%23xA0%3Bal.%20%282026%29.%20Towards%20systematics-based%20guidelines%20for%20stable%20taxonomy%3A%20lessons%20from%20sea%20slugs.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BZoological%20Journal%20of%20the%20Linnean%20Society%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B208%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281%29%2C%20zlag141.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-ItemURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlag141%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlag141%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Towards%20systematics-based%20guidelines%20for%20stable%20taxonomy%3A%20lessons%20from%20sea%20slugs%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Juan%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Moles%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Lynn%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Bonomo%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Bastian%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Brenzinger%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Yolanda%20Ester%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Camacho%20Garc%5Cu00eda%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Leila%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Carmona%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Juan%20Lucas%20Cervera%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Currado%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Samantha%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Donohoo%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Jose%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Fern%5Cu00e1ndez-Sim%5Cu00f3n%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Giulia%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Furfaro%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Carles%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Gali%5Cu00e0-Camps%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Jessica%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Goodheart%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Kathe%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Jensen%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Patrick%20J%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Krug%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Kara%20K%20S%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Layton%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Manuel%20Ant%5Cu00f3nio%20E%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Malaquias%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M%20Rosario%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Mart%5Cu00edn-Herv%5Cu00e1s%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Timea%20P%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Neusser%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Vinicius%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Padula%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sofia%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Paz-Sedano%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Marta%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Pola%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Egidio%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Trainito%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22%5Cu00c1ngel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Vald%5Cu00e9s%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Heike%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Nerida%20G%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Wilson%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Nathalie%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yonow%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Terrence%20M%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Gosliner%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Taxonomy%20is%20a%20cumulative%20science%20that%20translates%20evolutionary%20knowledge%20into%20a%20stable%2C%20communicable%2C%20and%20functional%20system%20of%20names.%20Yet%20its%20progress%20is%20often%20undermined%20not%20by%20new%20data%2C%20but%20by%20how%20evidence%20is%20interpreted%20and%20acted%20upon.%20We%20argue%20that%20taxonomic%20decisions%20should%20meet%20five%20foundational%20thresholds%3A%20%28i%29%20a%20classification%20reflecting%20the%20tree%20of%20life%2C%20ensuring%20replicated%20monophyly%20and%20rank%20symmetry%3B%20%28ii%29%20diagnosability%2C%20linking%20molecular%20and%20morphological%20traits%20to%20recognizable%20features%3B%20%28iii%29%20compatibility%20with%20topotypical%20material%2C%20minimizing%20misinterpretation%20and%20the%20need%20for%20further%20taxonomic%20remediation%20actions%3B%20%28iv%29%20collateral-impact%20assessment%2C%20preventing%20changes%20that%20induce%20downstream%20paraphyly%20and%20instability%3B%20and%20%28v%29%20transparent%20communication%2C%20fostering%20a%20civil%2C%20evidence-focused%20scientific%20debate.%20Together%2C%20these%20criteria%20frame%20taxonomy%20as%20a%20reproducible%20and%20accountable%20scientific%20enterprise%2C%20in%20which%20individual%20taxonomic%20decisions%20contribute%20coherently%20to%20an%20evolving%20classification.%20Using%20heterobranch%20sea%20slugs%20as%20a%20case%20study%2C%20we%20illustrate%20how%20departures%20from%20these%20standards%20generate%20instability%20without%20corresponding%20gains%20in%20explanatory%20power%20and%20demonstrate%20that%20the%20same%20evidence-based%20principles%20apply%20across%20the%20taxonomic%20hierarchy%2C%20from%20higher-level%20clades%20to%20families%2C%20genera%2C%20and%20species.%20Applying%20these%20principles%20supports%20retaining%20historically%20entrenched%2C%20monophyletic%20names%2C%20such%20as%20Nudibranchia%20s.l.%2C%20when%20redefining%20them%20offers%20no%20phylogenetic%20or%20practical%20advantage.%20We%20encourage%20shared%2C%20transparent%20standards%20across%20the%20taxonomic%20community.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-09-01%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlag141%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1093%5C%2Fzoolinnean%5C%2Fzlag141%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%220024-4082%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-09-03T12%3A41%3A42Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%22ZMQA2WCB%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Pola%20and%20Gosliner%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222010%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BPola%2C%20M.%2C%20Gosliner%2C%20T.%20M.%20%282010%29.%20The%20first%20molecular%20phylogeny%20of%20cladobranchian%20opisthobranchs%20%28Mollusca%2C%20Gastropoda%2C%20Nudibranchia%29.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BMolecular%20Phylogenetics%20and%20Evolution%2056%3A%20931-941.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22The%20first%20molecular%20phylogeny%20of%20cladobranchian%20opisthobranchs%20%28Mollusca%2C%20Gastropoda%2C%20Nudibranchia%29%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Pola%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22T.%20M.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Gosliner%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222010%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%22%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222018-02-13T22%3A42%3A09Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%22IM4ETCFK%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Schr%5Cu00f6dl%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222001%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BSchr%26%23xF6%3Bdl%2C%20M.%2C%20W%26%23xE4%3Bgele%2C%20H.%2C%20Willan%2C%20R.%20C.%20%282001%29.%20Taxonomic%20redescription%20of%20the%20doridoxidae%20%28Gastropoda%26%23x202F%3B%3A%20Opisthobranchia%29%2C%20an%20enigmatic%20family%20of%20deep%20water%20nudibranchs%2C%20with%20discussion%20of%20basal%20nudibranch%20phylogeny.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BZoologischer%20Anzeiger%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B240%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281%29%2C%2083-97.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1078%5C%2F0044-5231-00008%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1078%5C%2F0044-5231-00008%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Taxonomic%20redescription%20of%20the%20doridoxidae%20%28Gastropoda%20%3A%20Opisthobranchia%29%2C%20an%20enigmatic%20family%20of%20deep%20water%20nudibranchs%2C%20with%20discussion%20of%20basal%20nudibranch%20phylogeny%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Schr%5Cu00f6dl%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22H.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22R.%20C.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Willan%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22In%20this%20study%2C%20all%20the%20existing%20specimens%20of%20the%20Doridoxidae%20were%20re-examined%3B%20that%20is%20%28a%29%20the%20holotype%20of%20Doridoxa%20ingolfiana%20Bergh%2C%201899%20from%20western%20Greenland%2C%20%28b%29%20a%20specimen%20described%20as%20%26quot%3BD.%20ingolfiana%20var.%3F%26quot%3B%20by%20BERGH%20%281899%29%20from%20Iceland%2C%20%28c%29%20another%20more%20recently%20collected%20specimen%20from%20southern%20Greenland%2C%20which%20was%20serially%20sectioned%20and%20examined%20histologically%20as%20part%20of%20the%20present%20study%2C%20and%20%28d%29%20the%20holotype%20of%20D.%20benthalis%20Barnard%2C%201963.%20Significant%20discrepancies%20between%20the%20first%20three%20of%20these%20specimens%20and%20Bergh%26%23039%3Bs%20original%20description%20of%20D.%20ingolfiana%20are%20apparent%2C%20but%20they%20do%20not%20alter%20our%20opinion%20that%20all%20three%20specimens%20belong%20to%20a%20single%2C%20variable%20species.%20The%20monobasic%20taxon%20D.%20benthalis%20Barnard%2C%201963%20is%20specifically%20distinct%20from%20D.%20ingolfiana.%20BERGH%20%281899%29%20considered%20that%20the%20Doridoxidae%20had%20a%20holohepatic%20digestive%20gland%20%28and%20thus%20was%20a%20member%20of%20the%20Anthobranchia%29.%20Our%20reassessments%2C%20particularly%20those%20concerning%20the%20structure%20of%20the%20digestive%20gland%2C%20branchial%20apparatus%20and%20anal%20site%2C%20indicate%20that%20BERGH%20misunderstood%20the%20form%20and%20polarities%20of%20these%20characters%2C%20and%20that%20the%20Doridoxidae%20must%20be%20relocated%20within%20the%20cladohepatic%20%28i.e.%20actenidiacean%29%20nudibranchs%20as%20its%20first%20offshoot.%20The%20Nudibranchia%20are%20thus%20divided%20into%20two%20major%20clades%3A%20Anthobranchia%20%28%3D%20Bathydoridoidea%20%2B%20Doridoidea%29%20and%20Dexiarchia%20nom.%20nov.%20%28%3D%20Doridoxoidea%20%2B%20Dendronotoidea%20%2B%20Aeolidoidea%20%2B%20%26quot%3BArminoidea%26quot%3B%29.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222001%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1078%5C%2F0044-5231-00008%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%3A%5C%2F%5C%2FWOS%3A000169089900009%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%220044-5231%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222018-02-13T23%3A00%3A37Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%222J2FGD4Z%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%20and%20Willan%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222000%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BW%26%23xE4%3Bgele%2C%20H.%2C%20Willan%2C%20R.%20C.%20%282000%29.%20Phylogeny%20of%20the%20Nudibranchia.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BZoological%20Journal%20of%20the%20Linnean%20Society%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B130%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281%29%2C%2083-181.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1111%5C%2Fj.1096-3642.2000.tb02196.x%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1111%5C%2Fj.1096-3642.2000.tb02196.x%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Phylogeny%20of%20the%20Nudibranchia%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22H.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22R.%20C.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Willan%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222000%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1111%5C%2Fj.1096-3642.2000.tb02196.x%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-09-03T12%3A45%3A19Z%22%7D%7D%2C%7B%22key%22%3A%22ISNAQMQA%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A1246567%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222014%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BW%26%23xE4%3Bgele%2C%20H.%2C%20Klussmann-Kolb%2C%20A.%2C%20Verbeek%2C%20E.%2C%20Schr%26%23xF6%3Bdl%2C%20M.%20%282014%29.%20Flashback%20and%20foreshadowing-a%20review%20of%20the%20taxon%20Opisthobranchia.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BOrganisms%20Diversity%20%26amp%3B%20Evolution%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B14%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%281%29%2C%20133-149.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20target%3D%26%23039%3B_blank%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1007%5C%2Fs13127-013-0151-5%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.1007%5C%2Fs13127-013-0151-5%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Flashback%20and%20foreshadowing-a%20review%20of%20the%20taxon%20Opisthobranchia%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22H.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22W%5Cu00e4gele%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22A.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Klussmann-Kolb%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22E.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Verbeek%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22M.%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Schr%5Cu00f6dl%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Opisthobranchia%20have%20experienced%20an%20unsettled%20taxonomic%20history.%20At%20the%20moment%20their%20taxonomy%20is%20in%20state%20of%20dramatic%20flux%20as%20recent%20phylogenetic%20studies%20have%20revealed%20traditional%20Opisthobranchia%20to%20be%20paraphyletic%20or%20even%20polyphyletic%2C%20allocating%20some%20traditional%20opisthobranch%20taxa%20to%20other%20groups%20of%20Heterobranchia%2C%20e.g.%20Pulmonata.%20Here%20we%20review%20the%20history%20of%20Opisthobranchia%20and%20their%20subgroups%2C%20explain%20their%20traditionally%20proposed%20relationships%2C%20and%20outline%20the%20most%20recent%20phylogenetic%20analyses%20based%20on%20various%20methods%20%28morphology%2C%20single%20gene%20and%20multiple%20gene%20analyses%2C%20as%20well%20as%20genomic%20data%29.%20We%20also%20present%20a%20phylogenetic%20hypothesis%20on%20Heterobranchia%20that%2C%20according%20to%20the%20latest%20results%2C%20represents%20a%20consensus%20and%20is%20the%20most%20probable%20one%20available%20to%20date.%20The%20proposed%20phylogeny%20supports%20the%20Acteonoidea%20outside%20of%20monophyletic%20Euthyneura%2C%20the%20basal%20euthyneuran%20split%20into%20Nudipleura%20%28Nudibranchia%20plus%20Pleurobranchoidea%29%20and%20the%20recently%20established%20taxon%20Tectipleura.%20The%20latter%20divides%20into%20the%20Euopisthobranchia%2C%20containing%20most%20of%20the%20major%20traditional%20opisthobranch%20clades%2C%20and%20the%20Panpulmonata%2C%20with%20a%20mix%20of%20the%20former%20opisthobranch%2C%20putative%20allogastropod%20and%20pulmonate%20taxa.%20This%20%26quot%3Bnew%20euthyneuran%20tree%26quot%3B%20rejects%20the%20traditional%20taxa%20Opisthobranchia%20and%20Pulmonata%2C%20and%2C%20in%20particular%2C%20has%20profound%20implications%20for%20preconceived%20textbook%20scenarios%20of%20opisthobranch%20and%20pulmonate%20evolution%2C%20which%20must%20now%20be%20reconsidered.%20In%20the%20absence%20of%20systematic%20barriers%2C%20research%20communities-which%20have%20traditionally%20investigated%20marine%20and%20non-marine%20heterobranchs%20separately-need%20to%20interact%20and%20finally%20merge%20for%20the%20sake%20of%20science.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222014%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.1007%5C%2Fs13127-013-0151-5%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22%3A%5C%2F%5C%2FWOS%3A000332585400012%20http%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdownload.springer.com%5C%2Fstatic%5C%2Fpdf%5C%2F914%5C%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252Fs13127-013-0151-5.pdf%3Fauth66%3D1415872690_e1e5bd749ca16750a7903ef8ce7450f0%26ext%3D.pdf%20http%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdownload.springer.com%5C%2Fstatic%5C%2Fpdf%5C%2F914%5C%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252Fs13127-013-0151-5.pdf%3Fauth66%3D1416029274_51059fbce0a06e737664b7ec9595b22e%26ext%3D.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%221439-6092%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%2222WZ5MYR%22%2C%2282T5E3QX%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222022-03-26T09%3A39%3A22Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
    Bouchet, P., Rocroi, J. P. (2005). Classification and nomenclator of gastropod families. Malacologia, 47(1-2), 1-397.
    Bouchet, P., Rocroi, J. P., Hausdorf, B., Kaim, A., Kano, Y., Nützel, A., Parkhaev, P. et al. (2017). Revised classification, nomenclator and typification of gastropod and monoplacophoran families. Malacologia, 61(1-2), 1-526.
    Goodheart, J., Bazinet, A. L., Collins, A. G., Cummings, M. P. (2015). Relationships within Cladobranchia (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia) based on RNA-Seq data: an initial investigation. R. Soc. open sci.2: 150196. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150196
    Korshunova, T., Fletcher, K., Martynov, A. (2025). The endless forms are the most differentiated—how taxonomic pseudo-optimization masked natural diversity and evolution: the nudibranch case. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 204(4), 1-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf057
    Mahguib, J., Valdés, Á. (2015). Molecular investigation of the phylogenetic position of the polar nudibranch Doridoxa (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Heterobranchia). Polar Biol (2015) 38:1369–1377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-015-1700-5
    Moles, J., Bonomo, L., Brenzinger, B., Camacho García, Y. E., Carmona, L., Currado, J. L. C., Donohoo, S. et al. (2026). Towards systematics-based guidelines for stable taxonomy: lessons from sea slugs. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 208(1), zlag141. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlag141
    Pola, M., Gosliner, T. M. (2010). The first molecular phylogeny of cladobranchian opisthobranchs (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56: 931-941.
    Schrödl, M., Wägele, H., Willan, R. C. (2001). Taxonomic redescription of the doridoxidae (Gastropoda : Opisthobranchia), an enigmatic family of deep water nudibranchs, with discussion of basal nudibranch phylogeny. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 240(1), 83-97. https://doi.org/10.1078/0044-5231-00008
    Wägele, H., Willan, R. C. (2000). Phylogeny of the Nudibranchia. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 130(1), 83-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb02196.x
    Wägele, H., Klussmann-Kolb, A., Verbeek, E., Schrödl, M. (2014). Flashback and foreshadowing-a review of the taxon Opisthobranchia. Organisms Diversity & Evolution, 14(1), 133-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13127-013-0151-5

    Bibliography based on the works by Steve Long, 2006. Bibliography of Opisthobranchia 1554-2000 and Gary McDonald, 2009. Bibliographia Nudibranchia, with later updates from other resources.